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{{Short description|Gelled incendiary mixture}}
{{About|flammable liquids used for flame-type weaponry |other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2022}}
[[File:F100 Napalm.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|[[North American F-100 Super Sabre]] deploying napalm in a training exercise]]


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e=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref>
'''Napalm''' is an [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] mixture of a [[Thickening agent|gelling agent]] and a volatile petrochemical (usually [[petrol]] or [[diesel fuel]]). The name is a [[portmanteau]] of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: [[coprecipitated]] [[aluminium]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]]s of [[naphthenic acid|''na''phthenic acid]] and [[palmitic acid|''palm''itic acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2013|title=Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> A team led by chemist [[Louis Fieser]] originally developed napalm for the [[US Chemical Warfare Service]] in 1942 in a secret laboratory at [[Harvard University]].<ref name=neer1>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/496029a |title=Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp. |journal=Nature |volume=496 |issue=7443 |page=29 |year=2013 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Of immediate first interest was its viability as an [[incendiary device]] to be used in [[fire bombing]] campaigns during [[World War II]]; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure [[gasoline]]) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted [[flamethrower]]s as well.

Napalm burns at temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797 |website=www.thoughtco.com |publisher=ThoughtCo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Military Review |date=April 1953 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |page=13 |edition=Volume 13 Number 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13 }}</ref> ranging from {{convert|800|to|1200|C}}. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in [[World War II]] in the [[Air raids on Japan|incendiary attacks on Japanese cities]] in 1945. It was used also for [[close air support]] roles in the [[First Indochina War]], the [[Algerian War]], the [[Korean War]], the [[Six-Day War]], and the [[Vietnam War]]. Napalm has also fueled most of the [[flamethrowers]] (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of [[urban combat]] by both the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War II.

== Development ==
The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="PATRv6">{{cite book|author1=Basil T. Fedoroff|author2=Oliver E. Sheffield|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|chapter=Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437|volume=6|pages=F56–F58|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1974|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>{{rp|F57}} The use of aluminium salts of organic acids ([[OP-2 (thickener)|Ionov's salt]]) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the [[Red Army]].<ref>V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.</ref> [[Latex]], used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since [[natural rubber]] was almost impossible to obtain after the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] captured the rubber plantations in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch Indies|Indonesia]], [[French Indochina|Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]].

This shortage of natural rubber prompted [[chemist]]s at US companies such as [[DuPont]] and [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]], and researchers at [[Harvard University]], to develop factory-made alternatives: [[Synthetic rubber|artificial rubber]] for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by [[Louis Fieser]] at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.<ref name="UofBristol">{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm|title=Napalm|website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk}}</ref> "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding [[phosphorus]] to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the [[Muscle|musculature]], where it would continue to burn day after day."<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105">{{cite book|last=Lindqvist|first=Sven|title=A History of Bombing|year=2001|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=1-56584-625-7|page=105}}</ref>

On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the [[Harvard Business School]].<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105"/> Tests under operational conditions were carried out at [[Jefferson Proving Ground]] on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.<ref name=Noyes>{{cite book|editor-last=Noyes|editor-first=W.A. Jr. |title=Science in World War II: Chemistry|year=1948|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston|pages=392, 393}}</ref><ref name=Ithaca>{{cite web|title=An Ithaca of sorts|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|date=29 June 2010|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|archive-date=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for [[incendiary bomb]]s and in [[flamethrower]]s, after its first deployment in [[New Guinea campaign|Papua New Guinea]] on 15 December 1943.<ref name=ww2>{{Cite web|author=Marine Guillaume|website=SciencesPo|title=Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975|date=2016-12-10|access-date=2022-07-21|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|issn=1961-9898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|archive-date=2022-03-25|url-status=live}}</ref>

From 1965 to 1969, the [[Dow Chemical Company]] manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.<ref name="ww2" /> After news reports of napalm's deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced [[boycott]]s of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, [[chemical engineering|chemical engineer]]s, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1967.wisc.edu/ |title=A Turning Point |author=University of Wisconsin-Madison |date=2017 |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Gayle |date=8 October 2017 |title=50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison |url=https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html |magazine=Wisconsin State Journal |location=Madison, WI |publisher=John Humenik |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html "Napalm History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=2011-10-06 }} Virginia Center for Digital History</ref> Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html Napalm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=6 October 2011 }}. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref>

== Military use ==
[[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the [[Aviation navale]] on suspected [[Viet Minh]] positions during the [[First Indochina War]], December 1953]]

Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for kyle..<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web|title=The Harvard Candle|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|date=6 March 2011|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|archive-date=29 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the [[US Army Air Force]] (USAAF) on [[Berlin]] on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.<ref>Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) [http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.''] Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.</ref><ref>An article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' dated 12 October 1973 here [http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".</ref> The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the [[368th Fighter Group]], Ninth Air Force Northeast of [[Compiègne]], France 27 May 1944<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html|title=368th FG HQ Documents|website=www.368thfightergroup.com}}</ref> and the British [[de Havilland Mosquito|De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VI]]s of No. 140 Wing RAF, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Airforce]] on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the [[17th SS Panzergrenadier Division]] "''Götz von Berlichingen''" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in [[Operation Bulbasket]], and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.<ref>McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) ''SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.'' Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|1848841930}}.</ref>

Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on [[Saipan]], [[Iwo Jima]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Okinawa]], where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the [[US Navy]], the USAAF, the [[US Marine Corps]], and the [[Royal Air Force]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKinstry |first=Leo |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635 |title=Hurricane : victor of the Battle of Britain |date=2011 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-341-6 |location=London |oclc=659244635}}</ref> in support of ground troops.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} The [[M69 incendiary]] was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the [[Bombing of Tokyo]]. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.<ref>{{cite web|title= Who Made That Firebomb?|last= Wellerstein |first= Alex|website= RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog |url= http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb |date=August 30, 2013 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref>

When the USAAFs on the [[Marianas Islands]] ran out of conventional [[thermite]] incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General [[Curtis LeMay]], used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.<ref>
{{Cite book| last= De Chant| first= John A.| title= Devilbirds| year= 1947| publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers| location= New York| page= 155}}</ref>

In the [[European Theater of Operations]], napalm was used by American forces<ref>{{cite book|author=Zinn, Howard |title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267|year=1997|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-888363-54-8|pages=267–}}</ref> in the [[Allied siege of La Rochelle|siege of La Rochelle]] in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in [[Royan]]—about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>[[Howard Zinn]], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825 ''You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train''. 2004 Documentary]</ref>

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In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the [[Greek Civil War]] by the Greek National Army as part of operations [[Operation Koronis|Koronis]] and [[Operation Pyrsos|Pyrsos]] against the [[Democratic Army of Greece]] (DSE)—the military branch of the [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 |page=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref>


[[File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam]]
[[File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam]]


Napalm was widely used by the US during the [[Korean War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref>
Napalm was widely used by the US during the ching Chong [[Korean War|War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref>


At the same time, the [[French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref>
At the same time, the [[French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref>


{{anchor|Frantan}}
{{anchor|Frantan}}
A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/>
A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze loves minors, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/>


The [[South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Angola]] during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref>
The [[South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Angola]] during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref>

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'{{Short description|Gelled incendiary mixture}} {{About|flammable liquids used for flame-type weaponry |other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} {{Use American English|date=April 2022}} [[File:F100 Napalm.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|[[North American F-100 Super Sabre]] deploying napalm in a training exercise]] '''Napalm''' is an [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] mixture of a [[Thickening agent|gelling agent]] and a volatile petrochemical (usually [[petrol]] or [[diesel fuel]]). The name is a [[portmanteau]] of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: [[coprecipitated]] [[aluminium]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]]s of [[naphthenic acid|''na''phthenic acid]] and [[palmitic acid|''palm''itic acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2013|title=Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> A team led by chemist [[Louis Fieser]] originally developed napalm for the [[US Chemical Warfare Service]] in 1942 in a secret laboratory at [[Harvard University]].<ref name=neer1>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/496029a |title=Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp. |journal=Nature |volume=496 |issue=7443 |page=29 |year=2013 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Of immediate first interest was its viability as an [[incendiary device]] to be used in [[fire bombing]] campaigns during [[World War II]]; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure [[gasoline]]) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted [[flamethrower]]s as well. Napalm burns at temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797 |website=www.thoughtco.com |publisher=ThoughtCo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Military Review |date=April 1953 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |page=13 |edition=Volume 13 Number 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13 }}</ref> ranging from {{convert|800|to|1200|C}}. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in [[World War II]] in the [[Air raids on Japan|incendiary attacks on Japanese cities]] in 1945. It was used also for [[close air support]] roles in the [[First Indochina War]], the [[Algerian War]], the [[Korean War]], the [[Six-Day War]], and the [[Vietnam War]]. Napalm has also fueled most of the [[flamethrowers]] (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of [[urban combat]] by both the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War II. == Development == The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="PATRv6">{{cite book|author1=Basil T. Fedoroff|author2=Oliver E. Sheffield|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|chapter=Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437|volume=6|pages=F56–F58|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1974|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>{{rp|F57}} The use of aluminium salts of organic acids ([[OP-2 (thickener)|Ionov's salt]]) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the [[Red Army]].<ref>V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.</ref> [[Latex]], used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since [[natural rubber]] was almost impossible to obtain after the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] captured the rubber plantations in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch Indies|Indonesia]], [[French Indochina|Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]]. This shortage of natural rubber prompted [[chemist]]s at US companies such as [[DuPont]] and [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]], and researchers at [[Harvard University]], to develop factory-made alternatives: [[Synthetic rubber|artificial rubber]] for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by [[Louis Fieser]] at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.<ref name="UofBristol">{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm|title=Napalm|website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk}}</ref> "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding [[phosphorus]] to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the [[Muscle|musculature]], where it would continue to burn day after day."<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105">{{cite book|last=Lindqvist|first=Sven|title=A History of Bombing|year=2001|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=1-56584-625-7|page=105}}</ref> On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the [[Harvard Business School]].<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105"/> Tests under operational conditions were carried out at [[Jefferson Proving Ground]] on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.<ref name=Noyes>{{cite book|editor-last=Noyes|editor-first=W.A. Jr. |title=Science in World War II: Chemistry|year=1948|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston|pages=392, 393}}</ref><ref name=Ithaca>{{cite web|title=An Ithaca of sorts|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|date=29 June 2010|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|archive-date=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for [[incendiary bomb]]s and in [[flamethrower]]s, after its first deployment in [[New Guinea campaign|Papua New Guinea]] on 15 December 1943.<ref name=ww2>{{Cite web|author=Marine Guillaume|website=SciencesPo|title=Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975|date=2016-12-10|access-date=2022-07-21|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|issn=1961-9898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|archive-date=2022-03-25|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1965 to 1969, the [[Dow Chemical Company]] manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.<ref name="ww2" /> After news reports of napalm's deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced [[boycott]]s of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, [[chemical engineering|chemical engineer]]s, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1967.wisc.edu/ |title=A Turning Point |author=University of Wisconsin-Madison |date=2017 |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Gayle |date=8 October 2017 |title=50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison |url=https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html |magazine=Wisconsin State Journal |location=Madison, WI |publisher=John Humenik |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html "Napalm History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=2011-10-06 }} Virginia Center for Digital History</ref> Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html Napalm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=6 October 2011 }}. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref> == Military use == [[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the [[Aviation navale]] on suspected [[Viet Minh]] positions during the [[First Indochina War]], December 1953]] Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for kyle..<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web|title=The Harvard Candle|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|date=6 March 2011|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|archive-date=29 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the [[US Army Air Force]] (USAAF) on [[Berlin]] on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.<ref>Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) [http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.''] Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.</ref><ref>An article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' dated 12 October 1973 here [http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".</ref> The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the [[368th Fighter Group]], Ninth Air Force Northeast of [[Compiègne]], France 27 May 1944<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html|title=368th FG HQ Documents|website=www.368thfightergroup.com}}</ref> and the British [[de Havilland Mosquito|De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VI]]s of No. 140 Wing RAF, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Airforce]] on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the [[17th SS Panzergrenadier Division]] "''Götz von Berlichingen''" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in [[Operation Bulbasket]], and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.<ref>McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) ''SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.'' Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|1848841930}}.</ref> Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on [[Saipan]], [[Iwo Jima]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Okinawa]], where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the [[US Navy]], the USAAF, the [[US Marine Corps]], and the [[Royal Air Force]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKinstry |first=Leo |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635 |title=Hurricane : victor of the Battle of Britain |date=2011 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-341-6 |location=London |oclc=659244635}}</ref> in support of ground troops.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} The [[M69 incendiary]] was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the [[Bombing of Tokyo]]. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.<ref>{{cite web|title= Who Made That Firebomb?|last= Wellerstein |first= Alex|website= RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog |url= http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb |date=August 30, 2013 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref> When the USAAFs on the [[Marianas Islands]] ran out of conventional [[thermite]] incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General [[Curtis LeMay]], used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.<ref> {{Cite book| last= De Chant| first= John A.| title= Devilbirds| year= 1947| publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers| location= New York| page= 155}}</ref> In the [[European Theater of Operations]], napalm was used by American forces<ref>{{cite book|author=Zinn, Howard |title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267|year=1997|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-888363-54-8|pages=267–}}</ref> in the [[Allied siege of La Rochelle|siege of La Rochelle]] in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in [[Royan]]—about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>[[Howard Zinn]], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825 ''You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train''. 2004 Documentary]</ref> In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the [[Greek Civil War]] by the Greek National Army as part of operations [[Operation Koronis|Koronis]] and [[Operation Pyrsos|Pyrsos]] against the [[Democratic Army of Greece]] (DSE)—the military branch of the [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 |page=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam]] Napalm was widely used by the US during the [[Korean War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref> At the same time, the [[French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref> {{cite book | last= Fall | first= Bernard B. | author-link= Bernard B. Fall | title= Street Without Joy | orig-year = 1961 | year = 2018 | publisher= Stackpole Books | location= Guilford, CT | isbn= 978-0-8117-3654-1 }} </ref> Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thevietnamwar.info/napalm-vietnam-war/|title=Napalm in Vietnam War|last=Rohn|first=Alan|website=The Vietnam War|date=18 January 2014 |language=en-US|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> Reportedly about {{Convert|388000|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (388,000 short tons; {{Convert|388000|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to {{Convert|32357|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (32,357 short tons; {{Convert|32357|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) used over three years in the Korean War, and {{Convert|16500|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (16,500 short tons; {{Convert|16500|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) dropped on Japan in 1945.<ref name=neer1 /> The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even [[railroad tunnel]]s. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.<ref>{{cite web|title=Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/vietnam-war/history-napalm-vietnam-war.html/2|website=www.warhistoryonline.com|date=June 2016 |publisher=Nikola Budanovic|access-date=8 November 2017|ref=Napalm became a psychological weapon, as the enemy was terrified of the hell on earth caused by its use.}}</ref> {{anchor|Frantan}} A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The [[South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Angola]] during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref> Other instances of napalm's use include: France during the [[Algerian War of Independence|Algerian War]] (1954–1962);<ref>[[Benjamin Stora]], "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' n°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> [[Portuguese Colonial War]] (1961–1974); [[Turkey]] (1964) dropped napalm bombs in the [[Republic of Cyprus]]; [[Peru]] during the {{ill|1964 Matsés massacres|es|Masacre a comunidades matsés de 1964 (Perú)}} and the counterinsurgency campaign against the [[Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru)|Revolutionary Left Movement]] and the [[National Liberation Army (Peru)|National Liberation Army]] (1965);<ref>{{cite book |last1=Colby |first1=Gerard | last2=Dennett | first2=Charlotte |author-link1=Gerard Colby |date=1995 |title=Thy Will Be Done – The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil |url=https://archive.org/details/ConquestOfTheAmazon |location=New York |publisher=HarperPerennial |page=466, 491-493 |isbn=9780060167646}}</ref> the [[Six-Day War]] by Israel (1967); in [[Nigeria]] (1969); in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (1965 and 1971); [[Egypt]] (1973); by [[Turkey]] (1974) the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]]; by [[Morocco]] during the [[Western Sahara War]] (1975–1991); by [[Argentina]] (1982); by [[Iran]] (1980–88); by [[Iraq]] (1980–88, 1991); by [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] (IPKF) in 1987 against [[Tamils]] (LTTE) in [[Sri Lanka]]; by [[Angola]] during the [[Angolan Civil War]]; and [[Yugoslav Wars|Yugoslavia]] (1991–1996).<ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/F48goosegreen.htm Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982]. Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref> In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in its [[Operation Olive Branch|war against Kurdish militias over Afrin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm|title=Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm &#124; Voice of America – English|website=www.voanews.com|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2020|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925211954/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm/}}</ref> == Antipersonnel effects == [[File:The Terror of War.jpg|[[Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War|thumb|right|300px]] When used as a part of an [[incendiary weapon]], napalm causes severe [[burn]]s. During [[combustion]], napalm [[deoxygenation|deoxygenates]] the available air and generates [[carbon monoxide]] and [[carbon dioxide]], so [[asphyxiation]], unconsciousness, and death are also possible.<ref name="emed" /> Napalm is lethal even for dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into [[Defensive fighting position|foxholes]], tunnels, and [[bunker]]s, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by [[hyperthermia]], [[radiant heat]], [[dehydration]], [[asphyxia]]tion, smoke exposure, or [[carbon monoxide poisoning]].<ref name="emed">{{EMedicine|article|833665|Napalm Exposure}}</ref> Crews of [[armored fighting vehicles]] are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.<ref name="PATRv8">{{cite book|author=Seymour M. Kaye|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|volume=8|chapter=Napalm|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA057762/page/n186|pages=N2–N3|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1978|lccn=61-61759}}</ref> One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of {{convert|2500|sqyd|m2|sp=us|order=flip}}.<ref name="emed"/> == International law == International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,<ref name="UConn">Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). [http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War]. University of Connecticut Advance.</ref> but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN [[Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons]] (CCW) in 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|title=worldinbalance.net|website=www.worldinbalance.net|access-date=6 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004121233/http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|archive-date=4 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Protocol on Incendiary Weapons|Protocol III]] of the CCW restricts the use of all [[incendiary weapons]], but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, [[Barack Obama]]'s first full day in office as president.<ref name=napalmbiographybook>{{cite book|last=Neer|first=Robert|title=Napalm, An American Biography|year=2013|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-07301-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224 224]|url=https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224}}</ref><ref name=napalmbiographyweb>{{cite web|url=http://www.napalmbiography.com|title=Napalm, An American Biography|website=www.napalmbiography.com}}</ref> Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.<ref name=napalmbiographyweb/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html|title=Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm|author=Los Angeles Times|publisher=Baltimore Sun|date=February 24, 1995|accessdate=April 17, 2021}}</ref> The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=26&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=XXVI-2&src=TREATY |title=UNTC |publisher=Treaties.un.org |date= |accessdate=2022-03-15}}</ref> == See also == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Flame fougasse]] * [[German Village (Dugway proving ground)]] * [[Greek fire]], an ancient flamethrowing weapon that may have resembled napalm * [[Japanese Village (Dugway Proving Ground)]] * [[M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]] * [[Mark 77 bomb]] * [[Molotov cocktail]] * [[Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], a Vietnamese child injured by a napalm attack * [[Triethylaluminium]] * [[White phosphorus munitions]]{{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Neer, Robert M. (2013). ''Napalm: An American Biography''. [[Belknap Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-674-07301-2}} == External links == {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Napalm}} * {{YouTube|nqEy5NjJOrY|Hawker Tempest WW II testing including Napalm dropping}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Incendiary weapons]] [[Category:World War II weapons]] [[Category:American inventions]] [[Category:Soaps]] [[Category:Thickening agents]]'
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext)
' e=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam]] Napalm was widely used by the US during the ching Chong [[Korean War|War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref> At the same time, the [[French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref> {{cite book | last= Fall | first= Bernard B. | author-link= Bernard B. Fall | title= Street Without Joy | orig-year = 1961 | year = 2018 | publisher= Stackpole Books | location= Guilford, CT | isbn= 978-0-8117-3654-1 }} </ref> Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thevietnamwar.info/napalm-vietnam-war/|title=Napalm in Vietnam War|last=Rohn|first=Alan|website=The Vietnam War|date=18 January 2014 |language=en-US|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> Reportedly about {{Convert|388000|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (388,000 short tons; {{Convert|388000|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to {{Convert|32357|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (32,357 short tons; {{Convert|32357|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) used over three years in the Korean War, and {{Convert|16500|ST|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}} (16,500 short tons; {{Convert|16500|ST|LT|disp=output only}}) dropped on Japan in 1945.<ref name=neer1 /> The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even [[railroad tunnel]]s. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.<ref>{{cite web|title=Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/vietnam-war/history-napalm-vietnam-war.html/2|website=www.warhistoryonline.com|date=June 2016 |publisher=Nikola Budanovic|access-date=8 November 2017|ref=Napalm became a psychological weapon, as the enemy was terrified of the hell on earth caused by its use.}}</ref> {{anchor|Frantan}} A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze loves minors, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The [[South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Angola]] during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref> Other instances of napalm's use include: France during the [[Algerian War of Independence|Algerian War]] (1954–1962);<ref>[[Benjamin Stora]], "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' n°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> [[Portuguese Colonial War]] (1961–1974); [[Turkey]] (1964) dropped napalm bombs in the [[Republic of Cyprus]]; [[Peru]] during the {{ill|1964 Matsés massacres|es|Masacre a comunidades matsés de 1964 (Perú)}} and the counterinsurgency campaign against the [[Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru)|Revolutionary Left Movement]] and the [[National Liberation Army (Peru)|National Liberation Army]] (1965);<ref>{{cite book |last1=Colby |first1=Gerard | last2=Dennett | first2=Charlotte |author-link1=Gerard Colby |date=1995 |title=Thy Will Be Done – The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil |url=https://archive.org/details/ConquestOfTheAmazon |location=New York |publisher=HarperPerennial |page=466, 491-493 |isbn=9780060167646}}</ref> the [[Six-Day War]] by Israel (1967); in [[Nigeria]] (1969); in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (1965 and 1971); [[Egypt]] (1973); by [[Turkey]] (1974) the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]]; by [[Morocco]] during the [[Western Sahara War]] (1975–1991); by [[Argentina]] (1982); by [[Iran]] (1980–88); by [[Iraq]] (1980–88, 1991); by [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] (IPKF) in 1987 against [[Tamils]] (LTTE) in [[Sri Lanka]]; by [[Angola]] during the [[Angolan Civil War]]; and [[Yugoslav Wars|Yugoslavia]] (1991–1996).<ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/F48goosegreen.htm Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982]. Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref> In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in its [[Operation Olive Branch|war against Kurdish militias over Afrin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm|title=Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm &#124; Voice of America – English|website=www.voanews.com|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2020|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925211954/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm/}}</ref> == Antipersonnel effects == [[File:The Terror of War.jpg|[[Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War|thumb|right|300px]] When used as a part of an [[incendiary weapon]], napalm causes severe [[burn]]s. During [[combustion]], napalm [[deoxygenation|deoxygenates]] the available air and generates [[carbon monoxide]] and [[carbon dioxide]], so [[asphyxiation]], unconsciousness, and death are also possible.<ref name="emed" /> Napalm is lethal even for dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into [[Defensive fighting position|foxholes]], tunnels, and [[bunker]]s, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by [[hyperthermia]], [[radiant heat]], [[dehydration]], [[asphyxia]]tion, smoke exposure, or [[carbon monoxide poisoning]].<ref name="emed">{{EMedicine|article|833665|Napalm Exposure}}</ref> Crews of [[armored fighting vehicles]] are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.<ref name="PATRv8">{{cite book|author=Seymour M. Kaye|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|volume=8|chapter=Napalm|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA057762/page/n186|pages=N2–N3|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1978|lccn=61-61759}}</ref> One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of {{convert|2500|sqyd|m2|sp=us|order=flip}}.<ref name="emed"/> == International law == International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,<ref name="UConn">Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). [http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War]. University of Connecticut Advance.</ref> but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN [[Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons]] (CCW) in 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|title=worldinbalance.net|website=www.worldinbalance.net|access-date=6 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004121233/http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php|archive-date=4 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Protocol on Incendiary Weapons|Protocol III]] of the CCW restricts the use of all [[incendiary weapons]], but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, [[Barack Obama]]'s first full day in office as president.<ref name=napalmbiographybook>{{cite book|last=Neer|first=Robert|title=Napalm, An American Biography|year=2013|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-674-07301-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224 224]|url=https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224}}</ref><ref name=napalmbiographyweb>{{cite web|url=http://www.napalmbiography.com|title=Napalm, An American Biography|website=www.napalmbiography.com}}</ref> Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.<ref name=napalmbiographyweb/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html|title=Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm|author=Los Angeles Times|publisher=Baltimore Sun|date=February 24, 1995|accessdate=April 17, 2021}}</ref> The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=26&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=XXVI-2&src=TREATY |title=UNTC |publisher=Treaties.un.org |date= |accessdate=2022-03-15}}</ref> == See also == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Flame fougasse]] * [[German Village (Dugway proving ground)]] * [[Greek fire]], an ancient flamethrowing weapon that may have resembled napalm * [[Japanese Village (Dugway Proving Ground)]] * [[M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]] * [[Mark 77 bomb]] * [[Molotov cocktail]] * [[Phan Thi Kim Phuc]], a Vietnamese child injured by a napalm attack * [[Triethylaluminium]] * [[White phosphorus munitions]]{{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Neer, Robert M. (2013). ''Napalm: An American Biography''. [[Belknap Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-674-07301-2}} == External links == {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Napalm}} * {{YouTube|nqEy5NjJOrY|Hawker Tempest WW II testing including Napalm dropping}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Incendiary weapons]] [[Category:World War II weapons]] [[Category:American inventions]] [[Category:Soaps]] [[Category:Thickening agents]]'
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff)
'@@ -1,40 +1,8 @@ -{{Short description|Gelled incendiary mixture}} -{{About|flammable liquids used for flame-type weaponry |other uses}} -{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} -{{Use American English|date=April 2022}} -[[File:F100 Napalm.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|[[North American F-100 Super Sabre]] deploying napalm in a training exercise]] -'''Napalm''' is an [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] mixture of a [[Thickening agent|gelling agent]] and a volatile petrochemical (usually [[petrol]] or [[diesel fuel]]). The name is a [[portmanteau]] of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: [[coprecipitated]] [[aluminium]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]]s of [[naphthenic acid|''na''phthenic acid]] and [[palmitic acid|''palm''itic acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2013|title=Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> A team led by chemist [[Louis Fieser]] originally developed napalm for the [[US Chemical Warfare Service]] in 1942 in a secret laboratory at [[Harvard University]].<ref name=neer1>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/496029a |title=Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp. |journal=Nature |volume=496 |issue=7443 |page=29 |year=2013 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Of immediate first interest was its viability as an [[incendiary device]] to be used in [[fire bombing]] campaigns during [[World War II]]; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure [[gasoline]]) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted [[flamethrower]]s as well. - -Napalm burns at temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797 |website=www.thoughtco.com |publisher=ThoughtCo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Military Review |date=April 1953 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |page=13 |edition=Volume 13 Number 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13 }}</ref> ranging from {{convert|800|to|1200|C}}. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in [[World War II]] in the [[Air raids on Japan|incendiary attacks on Japanese cities]] in 1945. It was used also for [[close air support]] roles in the [[First Indochina War]], the [[Algerian War]], the [[Korean War]], the [[Six-Day War]], and the [[Vietnam War]]. Napalm has also fueled most of the [[flamethrowers]] (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of [[urban combat]] by both the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War II. - -== Development == -The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="PATRv6">{{cite book|author1=Basil T. Fedoroff|author2=Oliver E. Sheffield|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|chapter=Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437|volume=6|pages=F56–F58|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1974|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>{{rp|F57}} The use of aluminium salts of organic acids ([[OP-2 (thickener)|Ionov's salt]]) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the [[Red Army]].<ref>V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.</ref> [[Latex]], used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since [[natural rubber]] was almost impossible to obtain after the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] captured the rubber plantations in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch Indies|Indonesia]], [[French Indochina|Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]]. - -This shortage of natural rubber prompted [[chemist]]s at US companies such as [[DuPont]] and [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]], and researchers at [[Harvard University]], to develop factory-made alternatives: [[Synthetic rubber|artificial rubber]] for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by [[Louis Fieser]] at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.<ref name="UofBristol">{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm|title=Napalm|website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk}}</ref> "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding [[phosphorus]] to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the [[Muscle|musculature]], where it would continue to burn day after day."<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105">{{cite book|last=Lindqvist|first=Sven|title=A History of Bombing|year=2001|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=1-56584-625-7|page=105}}</ref> - -On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the [[Harvard Business School]].<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105"/> Tests under operational conditions were carried out at [[Jefferson Proving Ground]] on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.<ref name=Noyes>{{cite book|editor-last=Noyes|editor-first=W.A. Jr. |title=Science in World War II: Chemistry|year=1948|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston|pages=392, 393}}</ref><ref name=Ithaca>{{cite web|title=An Ithaca of sorts|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|date=29 June 2010|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|archive-date=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for [[incendiary bomb]]s and in [[flamethrower]]s, after its first deployment in [[New Guinea campaign|Papua New Guinea]] on 15 December 1943.<ref name=ww2>{{Cite web|author=Marine Guillaume|website=SciencesPo|title=Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975|date=2016-12-10|access-date=2022-07-21|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|issn=1961-9898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|archive-date=2022-03-25|url-status=live}}</ref> - -From 1965 to 1969, the [[Dow Chemical Company]] manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.<ref name="ww2" /> After news reports of napalm's deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced [[boycott]]s of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, [[chemical engineering|chemical engineer]]s, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1967.wisc.edu/ |title=A Turning Point |author=University of Wisconsin-Madison |date=2017 |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Gayle |date=8 October 2017 |title=50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison |url=https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html |magazine=Wisconsin State Journal |location=Madison, WI |publisher=John Humenik |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html "Napalm History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=2011-10-06 }} Virginia Center for Digital History</ref> Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html Napalm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=6 October 2011 }}. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref> - -== Military use == -[[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the [[Aviation navale]] on suspected [[Viet Minh]] positions during the [[First Indochina War]], December 1953]] - -Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for kyle..<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web|title=The Harvard Candle|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|date=6 March 2011|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|archive-date=29 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> - -The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the [[US Army Air Force]] (USAAF) on [[Berlin]] on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.<ref>Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) [http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.''] Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.</ref><ref>An article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' dated 12 October 1973 here [http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".</ref> The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the [[368th Fighter Group]], Ninth Air Force Northeast of [[Compiègne]], France 27 May 1944<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html|title=368th FG HQ Documents|website=www.368thfightergroup.com}}</ref> and the British [[de Havilland Mosquito|De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VI]]s of No. 140 Wing RAF, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Airforce]] on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the [[17th SS Panzergrenadier Division]] "''Götz von Berlichingen''" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in [[Operation Bulbasket]], and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.<ref>McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) ''SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.'' Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|1848841930}}.</ref> - -Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on [[Saipan]], [[Iwo Jima]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Okinawa]], where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the [[US Navy]], the USAAF, the [[US Marine Corps]], and the [[Royal Air Force]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKinstry |first=Leo |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635 |title=Hurricane : victor of the Battle of Britain |date=2011 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-341-6 |location=London |oclc=659244635}}</ref> in support of ground troops.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} The [[M69 incendiary]] was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the [[Bombing of Tokyo]]. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.<ref>{{cite web|title= Who Made That Firebomb?|last= Wellerstein |first= Alex|website= RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog |url= http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb |date=August 30, 2013 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref> - -When the USAAFs on the [[Marianas Islands]] ran out of conventional [[thermite]] incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General [[Curtis LeMay]], used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.<ref> -{{Cite book| last= De Chant| first= John A.| title= Devilbirds| year= 1947| publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers| location= New York| page= 155}}</ref> - -In the [[European Theater of Operations]], napalm was used by American forces<ref>{{cite book|author=Zinn, Howard |title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267|year=1997|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-888363-54-8|pages=267–}}</ref> in the [[Allied siege of La Rochelle|siege of La Rochelle]] in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in [[Royan]]—about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>[[Howard Zinn]], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825 ''You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train''. 2004 Documentary]</ref> - -In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the [[Greek Civil War]] by the Greek National Army as part of operations [[Operation Koronis|Koronis]] and [[Operation Pyrsos|Pyrsos]] against the [[Democratic Army of Greece]] (DSE)—the military branch of the [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 |page=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref> +e=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|[[Monitor (Vietnam War)#Zippo Monitor|"Zippo"]] riverboat of the US [[Brown-water navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam]] -Napalm was widely used by the US during the [[Korean War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref> +Napalm was widely used by the US during the ching Chong [[Korean War|War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref> At the same time, the [[French Air Force]] regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]] planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]] bombers were used.<ref> @@ -55,5 +23,5 @@ {{anchor|Frantan}} -A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/> +A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze loves minors, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The [[South African Air Force]] frequently deployed napalm from [[Aermacchi MB-326|Atlas Impala]] strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in [[Angola]] during the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Nortje">{{cite book|title=32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit|last=Nortje|first=Piet|location=New York|publisher=Zebra Press|year=2003|isbn=1-868729-141|page=158}}</ref> '
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[ 0 => 'e=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref>', 1 => 'Napalm was widely used by the US during the ching Chong [[Korean War|War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref>', 2 => 'A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze loves minors, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/>' ]
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[ 0 => '{{Short description|Gelled incendiary mixture}}', 1 => '{{About|flammable liquids used for flame-type weaponry |other uses}}', 2 => '{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}', 3 => '{{Use American English|date=April 2022}}', 4 => '[[File:F100 Napalm.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|[[North American F-100 Super Sabre]] deploying napalm in a training exercise]]', 5 => ''''Napalm''' is an [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] mixture of a [[Thickening agent|gelling agent]] and a volatile petrochemical (usually [[petrol]] or [[diesel fuel]]). The name is a [[portmanteau]] of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: [[coprecipitated]] [[aluminium]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]]s of [[naphthenic acid|''na''phthenic acid]] and [[palmitic acid|''palm''itic acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2013|title=Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm|access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref> A team led by chemist [[Louis Fieser]] originally developed napalm for the [[US Chemical Warfare Service]] in 1942 in a secret laboratory at [[Harvard University]].<ref name=neer1>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/496029a |title=Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp. |journal=Nature |volume=496 |issue=7443 |page=29 |year=2013 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Of immediate first interest was its viability as an [[incendiary device]] to be used in [[fire bombing]] campaigns during [[World War II]]; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure [[gasoline]]) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted [[flamethrower]]s as well.', 6 => '', 7 => 'Napalm burns at temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797 |website=www.thoughtco.com |publisher=ThoughtCo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Military Review |date=April 1953 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |page=13 |edition=Volume 13 Number 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13 }}</ref> ranging from {{convert|800|to|1200|C}}. It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely deployed from the air and from the ground, the largest use being via airdropped bombs in [[World War II]] in the [[Air raids on Japan|incendiary attacks on Japanese cities]] in 1945. It was used also for [[close air support]] roles in the [[First Indochina War]], the [[Algerian War]], the [[Korean War]], the [[Six-Day War]], and the [[Vietnam War]]. Napalm has also fueled most of the [[flamethrowers]] (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon of [[urban combat]] by both the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War II.', 8 => '', 9 => '== Development ==', 10 => 'The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="PATRv6">{{cite book|author1=Basil T. Fedoroff|author2=Oliver E. Sheffield|title=Encyclopedia of explosives and related items|chapter=Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437|volume=6|pages=F56–F58|publisher=Picatinny Arsenal|date=January 1, 1974|lccn=61-61759}}</ref>{{rp|F57}} The use of aluminium salts of organic acids ([[OP-2 (thickener)|Ionov's salt]]) for the preparation of incendiary viscous mixtures was already done by the Soviets in 1939, with high acceptance by the [[Red Army]].<ref>V. I. Losev. Gazavaya Promyshlennost, Vol 4, No 12, 1959. pp 17-24.</ref> [[Latex]], used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since [[natural rubber]] was almost impossible to obtain after the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] captured the rubber plantations in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch Indies|Indonesia]], [[French Indochina|Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]].', 11 => '', 12 => 'This shortage of natural rubber prompted [[chemist]]s at US companies such as [[DuPont]] and [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]], and researchers at [[Harvard University]], to develop factory-made alternatives: [[Synthetic rubber|artificial rubber]] for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by [[Louis Fieser]] at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.<ref name="UofBristol">{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm|title=Napalm|website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk}}</ref> "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding [[phosphorus]] to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the [[Muscle|musculature]], where it would continue to burn day after day."<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105">{{cite book|last=Lindqvist|first=Sven|title=A History of Bombing|year=2001|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=1-56584-625-7|page=105}}</ref>', 13 => '', 14 => 'On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the [[Harvard Business School]].<ref name="Lindqvist 2001 105"/> Tests under operational conditions were carried out at [[Jefferson Proving Ground]] on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.<ref name=Noyes>{{cite book|editor-last=Noyes|editor-first=W.A. Jr. |title=Science in World War II: Chemistry|year=1948|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|location=Boston|pages=392, 393}}</ref><ref name=Ithaca>{{cite web|title=An Ithaca of sorts|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|date=29 June 2010|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html|archive-date=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War for [[incendiary bomb]]s and in [[flamethrower]]s, after its first deployment in [[New Guinea campaign|Papua New Guinea]] on 15 December 1943.<ref name=ww2>{{Cite web|author=Marine Guillaume|website=SciencesPo|title=Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975|date=2016-12-10|access-date=2022-07-21|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|issn=1961-9898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html|archive-date=2022-03-25|url-status=live}}</ref>', 15 => '', 16 => 'From 1965 to 1969, the [[Dow Chemical Company]] manufactured napalm for the American armed forces.<ref name="ww2" /> After news reports of napalm's deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experienced [[boycott]]s of its products, and its recruiters for new chemists, [[chemical engineering|chemical engineer]]s, etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1967.wisc.edu/ |title=A Turning Point |author=University of Wisconsin-Madison |date=2017 |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Gayle |date=8 October 2017 |title=50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison |url=https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html |magazine=Wisconsin State Journal |location=Madison, WI |publisher=John Humenik |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html "Napalm History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=2011-10-06 }} Virginia Center for Digital History</ref> Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>[http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html Napalm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html |date=6 October 2011 }}. vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</ref>', 17 => '', 18 => '== Military use ==', 19 => '[[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|Results of a napalm strike by the [[Aviation navale]] on suspected [[Viet Minh]] positions during the [[First Indochina War]], December 1953]]', 20 => '', 21 => 'Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for kyle..<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web|title=The Harvard Candle|url=http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|date=6 March 2011|access-date=26 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html|archive-date=29 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>', 22 => '', 23 => 'The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by the [[US Army Air Force]] (USAAF) on [[Berlin]] on 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.<ref>Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966) [http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.''] Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.</ref><ref>An article in ''The Harvard Crimson'' dated 12 October 1973 here [http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/] states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".</ref> The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the [[368th Fighter Group]], Ninth Air Force Northeast of [[Compiègne]], France 27 May 1944<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html|title=368th FG HQ Documents|website=www.368thfightergroup.com}}</ref> and the British [[de Havilland Mosquito|De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VI]]s of No. 140 Wing RAF, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|Second Tactical Airforce]] on 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the [[17th SS Panzergrenadier Division]] "''Götz von Berlichingen''" in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] prisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part in [[Operation Bulbasket]], and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.<ref>McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009) ''SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.'' Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. {{ISBN|1848841930}}.</ref>', 24 => '', 25 => 'Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially on [[Saipan]], [[Iwo Jima]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Okinawa]], where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of the [[US Navy]], the USAAF, the [[US Marine Corps]], and the [[Royal Air Force]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKinstry |first=Leo |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635 |title=Hurricane : victor of the Battle of Britain |date=2011 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-341-6 |location=London |oclc=659244635}}</ref> in support of ground troops.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} The [[M69 incendiary]] was specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including the [[Bombing of Tokyo]]. Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.<ref>{{cite web|title= Who Made That Firebomb?|last= Wellerstein |first= Alex|website= RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog |url= http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb |date=August 30, 2013 |access-date=September 12, 2020}}</ref>', 26 => '', 27 => 'When the USAAFs on the [[Marianas Islands]] ran out of conventional [[thermite]] incendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as General [[Curtis LeMay]], used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.<ref>', 28 => '{{Cite book| last= De Chant| first= John A.| title= Devilbirds| year= 1947| publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers| location= New York| page= 155}}</ref>', 29 => '', 30 => 'In the [[European Theater of Operations]], napalm was used by American forces<ref>{{cite book|author=Zinn, Howard |title=The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267|year=1997|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-888363-54-8|pages=267–}}</ref> in the [[Allied siege of La Rochelle|siege of La Rochelle]] in April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) in [[Royan]]—about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>[[Howard Zinn]], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825 ''You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train''. 2004 Documentary]</ref>', 31 => '', 32 => 'In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in the [[Greek Civil War]] by the Greek National Army as part of operations [[Operation Koronis|Koronis]] and [[Operation Pyrsos|Pyrsos]] against the [[Democratic Army of Greece]] (DSE)—the military branch of the [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 |page=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Featherstone |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49 |page=211|last2=Papadimitriou |first2=Dimitris |last3=Mamarelis |first3=Argyris |last4=Niarchos |first4=Georgios |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-29465-3 |language=en}}</ref>', 33 => 'Napalm was widely used by the US during the [[Korean War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} The ground forces in [[North Korea]] holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[naval aviator|aviator]]s had control of the air over nearly all of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for [[close air support]] of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and [[South Korea]] and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "[[Outpost Harry]]" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used {{Convert|70000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (70,000 US gal; {{Convert|70000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of napalm, with approximately {{Convert|60000|USgal|l|abbr=off|sp=us|disp=output only}} (60,000 US gal; {{Convert|60000|USgal|impgal|disp=output only}}) of this thrown by US forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=99}}</ref> The ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<ref>{{cite book|title=Korea: Where the American Century Began|first=Michael|last=Pembroke|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|date=2018|page=152}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] [[Omar Bradley]], who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neer|first1=Robert M.|title=Napalm: An American Biography|date=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=102–3}}</ref>', 34 => 'A variant of napalm was produced in [[Rhodesia]] for a type of ordnance known as ''Frantan'' between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the [[Rhodesian Air Force]] during the [[Rhodesian Bush War|Bush War]].<ref name="Fireforce">{{Cite book| title = Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy | last = Anti-Apartheid Movement | first = (various) | year = 1979 | publisher = The Anti-Apartheid Movement | location = London | isbn = 978-0900065040 | pages = 39–40}}</ref> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<ref name="Fireforce"/> The government of [[Mozambique]] and the [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<ref name="Fireforce"/>' ]
All external links added in the edit (added_links)
[]
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links)
[ 0 => 'http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm', 1 => 'http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html', 2 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267', 3 => 'https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825', 4 => 'https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797', 5 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html', 6 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13', 7 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70', 8 => 'http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb', 9 => 'http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm', 10 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635', 11 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm', 12 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html', 13 => 'http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html', 14 => 'https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html', 15 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html', 16 => 'https://1967.wisc.edu/', 17 => 'https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html', 18 => 'http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html', 19 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html', 20 => 'http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon', 21 => 'http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/', 22 => 'http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html', 23 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2F496029a', 24 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1961-9898', 25 => 'https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437' ]
All external links in the new text (all_links)
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Links in the page, before the edit (old_links)
[ 0 => 'http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/wright/napalm.htm', 1 => 'http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php', 2 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqEy5NjJOrY', 3 => 'http://www.napalmbiography.com/', 4 => 'http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html', 5 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=JGLkwCNI7sIC&pg=PA267', 6 => 'https://www.warhistoryonline.com/vietnam-war/history-napalm-vietnam-war.html/2', 7 => 'http://www.naval-history.net/F48goosegreen.htm', 8 => 'https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/833665-overview', 9 => 'https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825', 10 => 'http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm', 11 => 'http://thevietnamwar.info/napalm-vietnam-war/', 12 => 'https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224', 13 => 'https://www.thoughtco.com/napalm-and-agent-orange-in-vietnam-war-195797', 14 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121229112152/http://www.aggregat456.com/2011/03/harvard-candle.html', 15 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111004121233/http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php', 16 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=7aJFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA5-PA13', 17 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=T5lxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT70', 18 => 'http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/08/30/who-made-that-firebomb', 19 => 'https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html', 20 => 'https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=26&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=XXVI-2&src=TREATY', 21 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181822#identifiers', 22 => 'https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10645858', 23 => 'https://d-nb.info/gnd/4613348-3', 24 => 'http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm', 25 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/659244635', 26 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130826104320/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/napalm', 27 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121011104333/http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html', 28 => 'http://www.aggregat456.com/2010/06/ithaca-of-sorts.html', 29 => 'https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html', 30 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220325215614/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/napalm-us-bombing-doctrine-and-practice-1942-1975.html', 31 => 'https://1967.wisc.edu/', 32 => 'https://host.madison.com/wsj/article_47f7dc75-e30a-5a16-8cf1-044eebc66f18.html', 33 => 'http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html', 34 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134128/http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html', 35 => 'http://de.scribd.com/doc/48257221/115/The-Incendiary-Bomb-The-Strategic-Weapon', 36 => 'http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/10/12/napalms-daddy-31-years-later-pin/', 37 => 'http://www.368thfightergroup.com/368-library-afhra-368HQ.html', 38 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2F496029a', 39 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1961-9898', 40 => 'https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm', 41 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200925211954/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm/', 42 => 'https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA057762/page/n186', 43 => 'https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA011845/page/n437', 44 => 'https://lccn.loc.gov/61-61759', 45 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211', 46 => 'https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1207030&CON_LNG=ENG', 47 => 'http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558118805171', 48 => 'https://archive.org/details/ConquestOfTheAmazon' ]
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html)
'<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>e=70|title=A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962|last=House|first=Jonathan M.|date=28 April 2014|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=9780806146904|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg/220px-US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg/330px-US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg/440px-US_riverboat_using_napalm_in_Vietnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monitor_(Vietnam_War)#Zippo_Monitor" title="Monitor (Vietnam War)">"Zippo"</a> riverboat of the US <a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown-water navy</a> deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrower</a> in Vietnam</figcaption></figure> <p>Napalm was widely used by the US during the ching Chong <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">War</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> The ground forces in <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Naval_aviator" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval aviator">aviators</a> had control of the air over nearly all of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Peninsula">Korean Peninsula</a>. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for <a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">close air support</a> of the ground troops along the border between North Korea and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "<a href="/wiki/Outpost_Harry" title="Outpost Harry">Outpost Harry</a>" in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used 260,000 liters (70,000 US gal; 58,000&#160;imp&#160;gal) of napalm, with approximately 230,000 liters (60,000 US gal; 50,000&#160;imp&#160;gal) of this thrown by US forces.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune" title="New York Herald Tribune">New York Herald Tribune</a></i> hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">British Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> <a href="/wiki/Omar_Bradley" title="Omar Bradley">Omar Bradley</a>, who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/French_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="French Air Force">French Air Force</a> regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> (1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Ju_52" title="Junkers Ju 52">Ju 52</a> planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-26_Invader" title="Douglas A-26 Invader">B-26</a> bombers were used.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> Reportedly about 352,000 tonnes (388,000 short tons; 346,000 long tons) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to 29,354 tonnes (32,357 short tons; 28,890 long tons) used over three years in the Korean War, and 15,000 tonnes (16,500 short tons; 14,700 long tons) dropped on Japan in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-neer1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neer1-7">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup> The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even <a href="/wiki/Railroad_tunnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad tunnel">railroad tunnels</a>. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Frantan"></span> A variant of napalm was produced in <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> for a type of ordnance known as <i>Frantan</i> between 1968 and 1978 and was deployed extensively by the <a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Air_Force" title="Rhodesian Air Force">Rhodesian Air Force</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Bush War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fireforce_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fireforce-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze loves minors, minister of health for the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union" title="Zimbabwe African National Union">Zimbabwe African National Union</a> (ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.<sup id="cite_ref-Fireforce_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fireforce-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> The government of <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union" title="Zimbabwe African People&#39;s Union">Zimbabwe African People's Union</a> (ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-Fireforce_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fireforce-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/South_African_Air_Force" title="South African Air Force">South African Air Force</a> frequently deployed napalm from <a href="/wiki/Aermacchi_MB-326" title="Aermacchi MB-326">Atlas Impala</a> strike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases in <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> during the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nortje_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nortje-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Other instances of napalm's use include: France during the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian War of Independence">Algerian War</a> (1954–1962);<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> (1961–1974); <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (1964) dropped napalm bombs in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Cyprus">Republic of Cyprus</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> during the <a href="/w/index.php?title=1964_Mats%C3%A9s_massacres&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="1964 Matsés massacres (page does not exist)">1964 Matsés massacres</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_a_comunidades_mats%C3%A9s_de_1964_(Per%C3%BA)" class="extiw" title="es:Masacre a comunidades matsés de 1964 (Perú)">es</a>&#93;</span> and the counterinsurgency campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Left_Movement_(Peru)" title="Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru)">Revolutionary Left Movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Army_(Peru)" title="National Liberation Army (Peru)">National Liberation Army</a> (1965);<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> by Israel (1967); in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (1969); in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> (1965 and 1971); <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (1973); by <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (1974) the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Invasion_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Invasion of Cyprus">Turkish Invasion of Cyprus</a>; by <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a> (1975–1991); by <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> (1982); by <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (1980–88); by <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> (1980–88, 1991); by <a href="/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force" title="Indian Peace Keeping Force">Indian Peace Keeping Force</a> (IPKF) in 1987 against <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamils</a> (LTTE) in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>; by <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslavia</a> (1991–1996).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in its <a href="/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch" title="Operation Olive Branch">war against Kurdish militias over Afrin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Antipersonnel_effects"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Antipersonnel effects</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#International_law"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">International law</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Antipersonnel_effects">Antipersonnel effects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Napalm&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Antipersonnel effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Terror_of_War.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/The_Terror_of_War.jpg/300px-The_Terror_of_War.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/The_Terror_of_War.jpg/450px-The_Terror_of_War.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/The_Terror_of_War.jpg/600px-The_Terror_of_War.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1817" data-file-height="1078" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phan_Thi_Kim_Phuc" title="Phan Thi Kim Phuc">Phan Thi Kim Phuc</a>, burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War</figcaption></figure> <p>When used as a part of an <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Incendiary weapon">incendiary weapon</a>, napalm causes severe <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">burns</a>. During <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a>, napalm <a href="/wiki/Deoxygenation" title="Deoxygenation">deoxygenates</a> the available air and generates <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, so <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Asphyxiation">asphyxiation</a>, unconsciousness, and death are also possible.<sup id="cite_ref-emed_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emed-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Napalm is lethal even for dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into <a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">foxholes</a>, tunnels, and <a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">bunkers</a>, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">hyperthermia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiant_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant heat">radiant heat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiation</a>, smoke exposure, or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">carbon monoxide poisoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-emed_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emed-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> Crews of <a href="/wiki/Armored_fighting_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Armored fighting vehicles">armored fighting vehicles</a> are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-PATRv8_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PATRv8-16">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of 2,100 square meters (2,500&#160;sq&#160;yd).<sup id="cite_ref-emed_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emed-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="International_law">International law</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Napalm&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: International law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,<sup id="cite_ref-UConn_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UConn-17">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup> but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weapons" title="Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons">Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons</a> (CCW) in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Protocol_on_Incendiary_Weapons" title="Protocol on Incendiary Weapons">Protocol III</a> of the CCW restricts the use of all <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Incendiary weapons">incendiary weapons</a>, but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute" title="Stockholm International Peace Research Institute">Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</a> (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>'s first full day in office as president.<sup id="cite_ref-napalmbiographybook_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-napalmbiographybook-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-napalmbiographyweb_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-napalmbiographyweb-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.<sup id="cite_ref-napalmbiographyweb_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-napalmbiographyweb-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Napalm&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flame_fougasse" title="Flame fougasse">Flame fougasse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Village_(Dugway_proving_ground)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Village (Dugway proving ground)">German Village (Dugway proving ground)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>, an ancient flamethrowing weapon that may have resembled napalm</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Village_(Dugway_Proving_Ground)" title="Japanese Village (Dugway Proving Ground)">Japanese Village (Dugway Proving Ground)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-69_Incendiary_cluster_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb">M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_77_bomb" title="Mark 77 bomb">Mark 77 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">Molotov cocktail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phan_Thi_Kim_Phuc" title="Phan Thi Kim Phuc">Phan Thi Kim Phuc</a>, a Vietnamese child injured by a napalm attack</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triethylaluminium" title="Triethylaluminium">Triethylaluminium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_phosphorus_munitions" title="White phosphorus munitions">White phosphorus munitions</a></li></ul></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Napalm&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFeatherstonePapadimitriouMamarelisNiarchos2011" class="citation book cs1">Featherstone, Kevin; Papadimitriou, Dimitris; Mamarelis, Argyris; Niarchos, Georgios (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCKBDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA211"><i>The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. p.&#160;211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-29465-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-29465-3"><bdi>978-0-230-29465-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Last+Ottomans%3A+The+Muslim+Minority+of+Greece%2C+1940%E2%80%9349&amp;rft.pages=211&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-230-29465-3&amp;rft.aulast=Featherstone&amp;rft.aufirst=Kevin&amp;rft.au=Papadimitriou%2C+Dimitris&amp;rft.au=Mamarelis%2C+Argyris&amp;rft.au=Niarchos%2C+Georgios&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUCKBDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA211&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNeer2013" class="citation book cs1">Neer, Robert (2013). <i>Napalm: An American Biography</i>. Harvard University Press. p.&#160;99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Napalm%3A+An+American+Biography&amp;rft.pages=99&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.aulast=Neer&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPembroke2018" class="citation book cs1">Pembroke, Michael (2018). <i>Korea: Where the American Century Began</i>. Hardie Grant Books. p.&#160;152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Korea%3A+Where+the+American+Century+Began&amp;rft.pages=152&amp;rft.pub=Hardie+Grant+Books&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.aulast=Pembroke&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNeer2013" class="citation book cs1">Neer, Robert M. (2013). <i>Napalm: An American Biography</i>. Harvard University Press. pp.&#160;102–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Napalm%3A+An+American+Biography&amp;rft.pages=102-3&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.aulast=Neer&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFall2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_B._Fall" title="Bernard B. Fall">Fall, Bernard B.</a> (2018) [1961]. <i>Street Without Joy</i>. Guilford, CT: Stackpole Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-3654-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-3654-1"><bdi>978-0-8117-3654-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Street+Without+Joy&amp;rft.place=Guilford%2C+CT&amp;rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8117-3654-1&amp;rft.aulast=Fall&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard+B.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRohn2014" class="citation web cs1">Rohn, Alan (18 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thevietnamwar.info/napalm-vietnam-war/">"Napalm in Vietnam War"</a>. <i>The Vietnam War</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Vietnam+War&amp;rft.atitle=Napalm+in+Vietnam+War&amp;rft.date=2014-01-18&amp;rft.aulast=Rohn&amp;rft.aufirst=Alan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthevietnamwar.info%2Fnapalm-vietnam-war%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neer1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neer1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>neer1</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="Napalm_became_a_psychological_weapon,_as_the_enemy_was_terrified_of_the_hell_on_earth_caused_by_its_use." class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.warhistoryonline.com/vietnam-war/history-napalm-vietnam-war.html/2">"Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War"</a>. <i>www.warhistoryonline.com</i>. Nikola Budanovic. June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.warhistoryonline.com&amp;rft.atitle=Liquid+Fire+%E2%80%93+How+Napalm+Was+Used+in+the+Vietnam+War&amp;rft.date=2016-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.warhistoryonline.com%2Fvietnam-war%2Fhistory-napalm-vietnam-war.html%2F2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fireforce-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fireforce_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fireforce_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fireforce_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnti-Apartheid_Movement1979" class="citation book cs1">Anti-Apartheid Movement, (various) (1979). <i>Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy</i>. London: The Anti-Apartheid Movement. pp.&#160;39–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0900065040" title="Special:BookSources/978-0900065040"><bdi>978-0900065040</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fireforce+Exposed%3A+Rhodesian+Security+Forces+and+Their+Role+in+Defending+White+Supremacy&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pages=39-40&amp;rft.pub=The+Anti-Apartheid+Movement&amp;rft.date=1979&amp;rft.isbn=978-0900065040&amp;rft.aulast=Anti-Apartheid+Movement&amp;rft.aufirst=%28various%29&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nortje-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nortje_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNortje2003" class="citation book cs1">Nortje, Piet (2003). <i>32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit</i>. New York: Zebra Press. p.&#160;158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-868729-141" title="Special:BookSources/1-868729-141"><bdi>1-868729-141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=32+Battalion%3A+The+Inside+Story+of+South+Africa%27s+Elite+Fighting+Unit&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=158&amp;rft.pub=Zebra+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=1-868729-141&amp;rft.aulast=Nortje&amp;rft.aufirst=Piet&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stora" title="Benjamin Stora">Benjamin Stora</a>, "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Histoire" title="L&#39;Histoire">L'Histoire</a></i> n°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFColbyDennett1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Colby" title="Gerard Colby">Colby, Gerard</a>; Dennett, Charlotte (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ConquestOfTheAmazon"><i>Thy Will Be Done – The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil</i></a>. New York: HarperPerennial. p.&#160;466, 491-493. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060167646" title="Special:BookSources/9780060167646"><bdi>9780060167646</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Thy+Will+Be+Done+%E2%80%93+The+Conquest+of+the+Amazon%3A+Nelson+Rockefeller+and+Evangelism+in+the+Age+of+Oil&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=466%2C+491-493&amp;rft.pub=HarperPerennial&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.isbn=9780060167646&amp;rft.aulast=Colby&amp;rft.aufirst=Gerard&amp;rft.au=Dennett%2C+Charlotte&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FConquestOfTheAmazon&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naval-history.net/F48goosegreen.htm">Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982</a>. Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925211954/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm/">"Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm &#124; Voice of America – English"</a>. <i>www.voanews.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/kurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm">the original</a> on 25 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.voanews.com&amp;rft.atitle=Kurds+Accuse+Turks+of+Dropping+Napalm+%26%23124%3B+Voice+of+America+%E2%80%93+English&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fmiddle-east%2Fkurds-accuse-turks-dropping-napalm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emed-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-emed_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emed_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emed_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/833665-overview">Napalm Exposure</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PATRv8-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PATRv8_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSeymour_M._Kaye1978" class="citation book cs1">Seymour M. Kaye (January 1, 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA057762/page/n186">"Napalm"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of explosives and related items</i>. Vol.&#160;8. Picatinny Arsenal. pp.&#160;N2–N3. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/61-61759">61-61759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Napalm&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+explosives+and+related+items&amp;rft.pages=N2-N3&amp;rft.pub=Picatinny+Arsenal&amp;rft.date=1978-01-01&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F61-61759&amp;rft.au=Seymour+M.+Kaye&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDTIC_ADA057762%2Fpage%2Fn186&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UConn-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UConn_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm">Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War</a>. University of Connecticut Advance.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111004121233/http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php">"worldinbalance.net"</a>. <i>www.worldinbalance.net</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1980-certainconventionalweapons.php">the original</a> on 4 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.worldinbalance.net&amp;rft.atitle=worldinbalance.net&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldinbalance.net%2Fintagreements%2F1980-certainconventionalweapons.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-napalmbiographybook-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-napalmbiographybook_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNeer2013" class="citation book cs1">Neer, Robert (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224"><i>Napalm, An American Biography</i></a>. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napalmamericanbi0000neer/page/224">224</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07301-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07301-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07301-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Napalm%2C+An+American+Biography&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.pages=224&amp;rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-674-07301-2&amp;rft.aulast=Neer&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapalmamericanbi0000neer%2Fpage%2F224&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-napalmbiographyweb-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-napalmbiographyweb_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-napalmbiographyweb_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napalmbiography.com">"Napalm, An American Biography"</a>. <i>www.napalmbiography.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.napalmbiography.com&amp;rft.atitle=Napalm%2C+An+American+Biography&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.napalmbiography.com&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLos_Angeles_Times1995" class="citation news cs1">Los Angeles Times (February 24, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html">"Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm"</a>. Baltimore Sun<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 17,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Military+in+no+hurry+to+dispose+of+napalm&amp;rft.date=1995-02-24&amp;rft.au=Los+Angeles+Times&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baltimoresun.com%2Fnews%2Fbs-xpm-1995-02-24-1995055173-story.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=26&amp;clang=_en&amp;mtdsg_no=XXVI-2&amp;src=TREATY">"UNTC"</a>. Treaties.un.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=UNTC&amp;rft.pub=Treaties.un.org&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftreaties.un.org%2Fpages%2FViewDetails.aspx%3Fchapter%3D26%26clang%3D_en%26mtdsg_no%3DXXVI-2%26src%3DTREATY&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapalm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Napalm&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li>Neer, Robert M. (2013). <i>Napalm: An American Biography</i>. <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07301-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07301-2">978-0-674-07301-2</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Napalm&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217611005">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/napalm" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/napalm">napalm</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217611005"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Napalm" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Napalm">Napalm</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqEy5NjJOrY"><span class="plainlinks">Hawker Tempest WW II testing including Napalm dropping</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181822#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181822#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181822#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Napalm"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4613348-3">Germany</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&amp;local_base=NLX10&amp;find_code=UID&amp;request=987007558118805171">Israel</a></span></li> <li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="napalm"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=ph1207030&amp;CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10645858">NARA</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>'
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)
false
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp)
'1714588927'
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:AbuseLog/37621556"